Gold in Migori, more bitter than glitter?
Africa is endowed with vast mineral resources and some of those are to be found in Kenya. For thousands of years African Kingdoms acquired wealth through mining and processing gold, diamonds and gemstones on an artisanal scale. As early as 40,000 years ago San hunters in the Kalahari were mining obsidian and chalcedony to make tools and weapons. In our developing world context, mining doesn’t always bring economic and social benefits because the minerals sector sometimes operates where there is poor governance and corruption. Migori County, the subject of this article is known for its gold deposits. Gold was discovered in the Migori Gold belt in Kehancha, Masara and Macalder in 1920. Gold mining in the area began in the early 1930s when Macalder mines were opened.
During this period mining was carried out mostly by large scale companies and some artisanal miners who exploited relatively small, but rich reefs. After independence, large-scale mining in the area ceased and mining became primarily artisanal and informal. In January of 2012 the Kilimapesa Gold Mine – the first Kenyan Gold mine began operations. Artisanal small-scale mining (ASM) is an important economic sector in many developing countries and Kenya is not exempt. But it is an informal sector with very little regulation. Informality marginalizes a community politically, economically and even socially as it removes the protections and opportunities provided by the government. But informality persists because of daunting barriers to formalization. Migori is still a remote region with poor transport and market access. Miners here suffer geographical marginalization that restricts access to information and key technologies as well as political access as communities far from the capital are less able to influence policy and access to markets which forces miners to sell through informal, illegal or less lucrative channels.
The Mining Act of 1940 vests ownership of all mineral deposits on the government. In order to carry out mining activities, an investor must apply to the Commissioner of mines and geology to get the necessary right, license or lease. The Mining Act has been criticized for not favoring the fair sharing of revenue and efficient waste management. A new bill has since been passed which factors in transparent and efficient management, benefit sharing by local communities and disputes resolution. But the lack of a clear legal framework made it difficult for the government to regulate the ASM sector contributing to the informality of the sector. ASM is indeed a prickly issue for the county government because it is difficult to tax and it operates in remote, unregulated and environmentally sensitive areas.
Artisanal mining in certain areas spans generations but Migori which is traditionally agricultural has seen more households taking up Artisanal Gold Mining (ASGM) as their main livelihood due to the decline in agricultural productivity in the area, as well as limited opportunities for formal employment. There is a new gold rush with to 20 000 outsiders swarming the region during peak periods. This has devastating consequences on people’s health and the environment. The sites cannot handle the stresses of large numbers of people during periods when newly discovered gold reefs are being mined. Once a location has been depleted, water logged or is considered too dangerous to work, workers move to new prospective sites. Mining sites become wasteland unsuitable for farming or any other activity. Toxic compounds and heavy metals previously locked in the undisturbed strata and minerals are leached to the environment. Water logged pits and trenches, are breeding sites for mosquitoes.
The use of mercury in AGSM remains the biggest global environmental challenge. Mercury seeps into the surrounding environment and can travel far from the site, thus contaminating the food chain and fisheries. A 2014 study by Kenyan researcher Benjamin Odumo along with a team of other scientists revealed high levels of mercury contamination in the soils, water bodies, and plant matter of the Migori Trans Mara region. Most of the rivers in the gold seams region eventually drain into Lakes Victoria and Turkana. These lakes are important for fish production which is not only an important source of dietary fish but is also a source of 4% of Kenya’s gross domestic product.
Unfortunately miners are unaware of the effects of metal poisoning during mineral processing. Exposure to mercury can cause kidney problems, arthritis, memory loss, miscarriages, psychotic reactions, respiratory failure, neurological damage, and even death. The Centre for Environmental Justice and Development (CEJAD) investigated the degree of mercury use in ASGM sites in Mikei, Masara and Osiri in Migori. They found that most of the excavation inside the mines is done by men. Men and women are engaged in processing once the ore is brought to the surface. But, sluicing and ore amalgamation is primarily by women and children. What is most worrisome is that exposure to mercury was highest among women and children. The CEJAD also found that most of the gear used in the industry is controlled by cartels. For example mercury is sold through chemists and by cartels within the surrounding towns and remains a closely guarded secret only known to those who deal in its trade.
Environmental education for artisanal miners has largely been about increasing yield, rehabilitating mined out areas, and managing mercury, but there is much more that ASM miners could do to operate in ways that are less environmentally damaging.
One approach is to totally remove mercury from ASM. Mintek, South Africa’s national mineral research organization has developed a mercury-free gold process, iGoli, which uses pool acid and bleach to return 99% pure ASM gold. This is safer for the workers and the environment, and has the incentive of improved returns. The challenges with this system are to make it attractive, affordable and replicable for ASM groups. There is a need to educate miners and local communities on conservation, ecology, and the importance of ecosystems.
Despite the negative consequences of ASM, the sector can have a variety of positive impacts. ASM is labor-intensive, offering more direct and indirect job opportunities than large-scale operations, and revenues generated can increase local purchasing power benefitting the economy at the local level. The high margins and low barriers to entry make ASM a highly lucrative activity for those with little human, physical and financial capital. This way ASM can provide relief to vulnerability, particularly where resources are invested wisely. Social problems in the ASM are not necessarily only a mining problem, but also that of poverty and marginalization aggravated by the political economy of informality. ASM can be made more organized by improving access to finance and resources, training in skills and business development, improving technology, and improving access to markets. An initiative in Tanzania and Kenya is trying to organize miners to be Fair-trade certified in order to provide a certification structure and credibility that allows fair business between empowered producers and ethical international business people. The aim is to transform ASGM from the proverbial resource curse into in an environmentally responsible business initiative that alleviates poverty.
ASM is an inherently unsustainable activity as it involves the extraction of non-renewable resources. Harvard economists Jeffrey Sachs and Andrew Warner studied 95 developing countries that were minerals exporters for the period 1970 to 1990. They found that the higher the dependence on natural resource exports, the slower the per capita growth. Therefore, even if ASM plays an important role in contributing to livelihoods in Migori today, as resources become more scarce and increased mechanization is required to access deeper and lower grade minerals this potential will diminish over time.